Blisters are a buildup of clear or almost clear fluid between layers of the skin. They may be caused by heat burns; chemical burns; rubbing (friction); infection by bacteria; viruses; hand, foot, and mouth disease; funguses; allergy to insect bites; or allergy to certain plants. Blisters range from the size of a pinhead to several centimeters across.

Signs and symptoms

Blisters are obvious from their typical appearance – a raised bubble of skin containing clear fluid. The cause of blisters is sometimes determined by their location. When blisters appear on the palms or heels, they are usually due to rubbing; most blisters of the feet are caused by ill-fitting shoes or by not wearing socks. Blisters on the soles and toes may be caused by a fungus. Blisters on the cuticles or backs of fingers almost always mean an infection.

Home care

Do not break open blisters caused by rubbing or by burns. Protect them with gauze and bandages. If a blister is accidentally opened, trim away the major portion of loose skin, cleanse with soap and water, and bandage. If the blister becomes infected (redness and increasing tenderness are signs of infection), it should be soaked in an Epsom salts solution. An infected blister should be checked by a doctor.

Precautions

• Red streaks spreading from a blister indicate spreading infection. If red streaks appear, see your doctor.

• Soaking unbroken blisters in too weak a solution causes marked enlargement of the blisters (suggested Epsom salts solution is at least 110 grams salts to a liter of water).

Medical treatment

Your doctor will determine the cause of the blister and look for signs of possible infection. Infected blisters are opened and the fluid cultured to determine the type of infection. Soaks or oral antibiotics may be prescribed individually or in combination.

*22/84/5*

Close to 95,000 men a year die of lung cancer, compared to 66,000 women. Nearly twice as many men as women die of cirrhosis of the liver. And males are three times as likely to be killed in accidents. The reasons are obvious. Men smoke more, drink more, and take more unnecessary risks than women.

“Add to that the fact that men eat more meat, fat, dairy products, eggs, and high-calorie foods than women, while women eat more fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and low-calorie foods,” says Dr. Crose. “It’s small wonder that men’s lives are cut short.”

And cut is exactly the word to describe the often sudden ends that men come to, says Dr. Kawachi. “The biggest killer of men in their prime is heart attack. Men also die of sudden death more frequently than women. They have no inkling that they have heart disease, and then they get ventricular fibrillation and drop dead,” he says.

One way to avoid getting stopped in your tracks is to have annual physicals. Another is to make small lifestyle adjustments to keep healthier and safer. Here are doctors’ top tips.

Terminate tobacco. Whether you chew it or smoke it, tobacco use dramatically raises your risk for cancer, Dr. Goldberg says. Chewing tobacco causes oral cancer. Smoking is responsible for almost 90 percent of lung cancers among men and significantly raises a person’s risk for developing cancer of the pancreas, kidney, bladder, and esophagus.

“People tire of hearing it, but quitting smoking is the best thing you can do for yourself,” Dr. Kawachi says. “If you’re a lifetime smoker, you have a one in four chance of dying from a disease related to that habit, especially before age 65.” No matter how old you are when you quit, you lower your risk of cancer and heart disease almost immediately, Dr. Kawachi says. Research shows that your risk of having a heart attack drops within the first 24 hours. And within the first five years, your risk of dying from lung cancer is cut in half.

Drink, but think. Once you have a few, you’re well past the point of thinking about your drinking. So try doing what women-who are frequently designated drivers-do. Before you start, think about what you’re going to drink and what you’re going to do afterward. Then limit yourself to just a couple. “While there’s evidence that moderate drinking may be good for the heart, excessive booze is bad for it. Plus it increases your risk for cancer and cirrhosis of the liver,” Dr. Goldberg says. Booze is partly to blame for five times as many men as women drowning, though more men know how to swim, and for men being almost 2H times more likely to die in a car accident than women, he says.

Flip-flop fiber and fat. Most men eat more fat than they should, and they’re often eating more than they realize. To get less artery-clogging fat in your diet, make a point to choose fibrous foods over fatty foods whenever possible, says Dr. Kawachi. That means if there’s a choice between a baked potato and fries, go with the baked potato.

“This is often harder for men than for women,” Dr. Crose says. “Women become concerned about food at an early age, which is a problem regarding eating disorders, but it can be helpful in preventing chronic diseases later in life.” By keeping this rule in mind, you’ll almost automatically eat more fruits, vegetables, and grains and less processed high-fat foods.

*17/36/5*

Our fear of death and the great beyond has fueled a seemingly endless supply of myths and lore, not to mention bad B-movies. Here are a few of our favorites.

Count on “the count.” With Tom Cruise’s portrayal of the Vampire Lestat in Interview with the Vampire, the world marked nearly 1,000 years of vampire lore. Popularized in the late 1800s with the publication of Bram Stoker’s novel Dracula, the notion of vampires first appeared in 1047, when someone referred to a Russian prince as “Upir Lichy” or wicked vampire. Vampire hysteria ran rampant from 1600 through the 1700s. Things got so bad in Romania that they developed “automatic vampire-piercing devices”-sharpened stakes driven into the grave so that if the body tried to leave, the vampire would be pierced instantly.

Essentially, vampires are thought to be folks who have died before their time, often violently, who have come back to kill their family and friends. Telltale signs of vampires are needle-sharp incisors used to suck blood from their prey. A wooden stake through the heart, cutting off the head, or burning the body to ashes is the best-known ways to bring one down for good.

Do the zombie. Countless cult classics like Night of the Living Dead show once-dead and buried folks clawing their way from their earthly tombs and oozing into nearby neighborhoods to wreak havoc among once-happy, unsuspecting citizens. Though nobody can say for certain where the concept of so-called zombies came from, it’s one we clearly dread-and one that may be more reality-based than you think.

Reportedly, Haitians schooled in the science of voodoo could administer a fish poison known as tetrodotoxin that would induce a state just inches from death. The victim would then be buried and, provided the voodoo maker had administered just the right dose, could later be “resurrected” to terrorize the living.

Tell it to your mummy. Ancient Egyptians believed that they were “magically resuscitated” after they died. To help the dead along, they would first embalm the corpse to mummify it. Then they’d bury it in an elaborate tomb, equipped with furnishings and toilet facilities so that the mummy could live comfortably once he came back to life. Somewhere along the way, people began to worry that maybe the mummy would wake up not in the Egyptian afterlife but in his tomb, mad as hell, and with a hankering to take his anger out on the living.

Today, we’re less nervous about that possibility but just as fascinated with mummies. More than 100,000 people a year travel to Kampehl, Germany, to view the remains of Christian Friedrich von Kahlbutz, a seventeenth-century count who was found naturally mummified in his crypt.

*27/36/5*

Preventive medicine is probably imbued with more rhetoric and noble ideas than any other medical speciality, but amongst all the high-flown talk one assertion stands out-that people ought to be more responsible for their own Health. This argument suggests that if we were all more ‘responsible’ and ‘pulled ourselves together’ we could prevent much illness both in ourselves and others. I personally find this a naive and unhelpful way of looking at prevention because it puts too great a burden of responsibility on millions who can’t cope with it. If they then ‘fail’ they are double losers-not only do they have the health problems to deal with but they are deemed to have brought them upon themselves.

The idea that personal lifestyle has implications for health is very old indeed. It underlines many of the injunctions of the Old Testament. The golden rule formulated by Juvenal (a healthy mind in a healthy body) was intended to achieve both physical and psychological well-being simultaneously. Even during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries when real strides were being made in preventive public health Measures, novels of the day suggested that it was the responsibility of individuals to look to their own well-being.

The idea that an individual can prevent the occurrence of illness is not new, then. What we now understand better is that human behaviour is not simply a matter of what people can will themselves to do-it is the combined result of forces acting from within (many of which are unconscious) and without. So today we can look in a very different way at how human behaviour affects health. No longer can we condemn people on ‘moral’ grounds for their lack of control, or whatever, and punish them, however unconsciously, with ill health. Also, the almost total control of mass infectious illnesses and the increase of chronic diseases as a cause of death makes the whole business of prevention even more important because the latter are so difficult or even impossible to cure.

This has all led to a generally held assumption that the next great milestone in medical advances will be a wholesale change in personal health-related behaviour brought about by a better understanding of human beings as a result of the behavioural sciences. If this is so and if it is to form the basis of preventive medicine for the future we ought to look at it more closely.

We have looked at health and illness behaviour in some detail already. Obviously an understanding of the subject is crucial if we are really to make any progress in preventing anything. The key study in this area has resulted in the Health Belief Model which attempted to explain how and why people used preventive services such as ÒÂ screening, dental check-ups and vaccinations. Since this model was first developed in the US in the 1950s numerous studies have classified areas touched on by the Model.

The Health Belief Model, simply stated, proposed that in the presence of certain triggers to take health action the likelihood of action actually being taken depends on the person’s belief about the seriousness of the health condition, his or her susceptibility to it, the efficiency of the proposed action and the difficulties he or she might encounter in attempting to carry out the action. This, then, is a rational model of human behaviour in which people respond to given situations with thought and with some knowledge.

Unfortunately, even this simple analysis of what happens is fraught with problems, and when we look at a specific example it begins to fall apart. For example, studies have found that women who are relatively young and well educated and have higher incomes are more likely to hold beliefs that are appropriate to taking action to have a cervical smear test than are women with less education and lower incomes. It is obviously not satisfactory to rely on any particular group’s own perception of health risks and the advisability of preventive action. The facts, alas, are often that the very groups who are least able to perceive the value of a preventive measure are those most at risk.

The next challenge then is to understand why people believe what they do and to try to find out how their attitudes can be changed to their advantage. In a free society this is a complex business because the people concerned have first to be convinced that a particular health goal is worth achieving. Many approaches are possible and an oblique one often works better than a full-frontal one. For example, many men happily take exercise because it makes them feel good yet they are blissfully unaware of the positive health benefits of their actions. These are purely a bonus to their sporting activities.

*22/72/5*

Deciding when a person with dementia should no longer drive a car is a very tricky problem. Not only is it usually a matter of pride for the driver, but the ability to get about by car can be of great practical importance in the everyday life of the sufferer and his or her carers. It is therefore very tempting to assume that all is well when there is no obvious risk. Driving is an automatic activity that often doesn’t require thought — until some untoward event occurs, that is. It is quite possible for a person with dementia to undertake a journey that he or she has made many times in the past without any difficulty at all. However, should something happen that requires fast and logical thought to avoid an accident, or the road layout be unexpectedly changed, major problems can ensue. Although familiar journeys will probably remain possible for some time, as the dementia progresses an attempt to make a journey that breaks new ground may well produce a crisis and, if you are unlucky, an accident.

As soon as you are aware that driving ability is even only a little impaired by dementia, it is essential that the person concerned stops driving, but if you are in any doubt, consult your doctor. There is also a legal requirement to inform the licensing authority of any disability that may impair fitness to drive, unless it is only a temporary affliction. Many insurance companies also require their policy holders to be fit to drive. It is technically possible, if an accident were to happen and the insurance company were to argue that the driver responsible was unfit through mental incapacity, that they would consider the insurance invalid. Not only could this result in their failing to make appropriate financial compensation, it may also leave the driver open to a charge of driving without insurance.

It is therefore probably a good idea to start getting a person who has early dementia used to the fact that he or she will eventually have to give up the car. This may well cause great sadness or anger. Nevertheless it will eventually be in the best interests of all concerned.

If you are unable to prevent a relative with dementia from driving by reasoning with him or her, you may have to ‘lose’ the car keys or, if necessary with the help of a friend, immobilize the car by some means. A belief that it has broken down may act as a natural break-point, enabling you to persuade your relative that it is not worth making the necessary repairs.

This is a situation that must be dealt with gently and tactfully, avoiding confrontation if possible. If you can drive yourself, you may be able to think of an excuse to do the driving on most, if not all, occasions. Remember that being able to drive a car requires physical fitness (good sight and hearing especially), coordination, and the intellectual ability to react and make decisions rapidly when this is necessary. You may find that your doctor will be able to help you if your advice to stop driving goes unheeded.

*105\138\2*

Those of us working closely with people who have dementia and who get to know well those caring for them are often told by carers that they wished they had done more, particularly after the sufferer has died or been admitted to a home or hospital for long-term care. This is very much tied up with the feelings of guilt discussed earlier. Remember that it is easy to be wise after the event. Remember also that it is very unlikely that you really could have done any more than you have, however much it may now seem that you could or should have. As already mentioned, caring for a person with dementia is a matter of compromises and there will always be room for nagging doubts and worries about the past. Even if you have made a mistake, you must remember that you will not be alone in this. Everybody makes mistakes and most people make theirs without having to cope with the very great strains that are involved in looking after someone with dementia.

You may find that you can help other carers by passing on your experiences, but it may well take a while after bereavement before this is possible. Similarly, some carers who have agreed to allow the sufferer to go into long-term care may feel too guilty to want to go on sharing their experiences with others. Nevertheless it is worth bearing this in mind and continuing to attend the support group or joining one if you are not already a member. Local voluntary organizations such as the nearest branch of the Alzheimer’s Disease Society may also be very pleased to have your help in any one of a number of ways.

Whatever happens, try not to let worries about the past prevent you from starting again with your life, and remember that looking after someone with dementia is in itself a major achievement.

*83\138\2*

The behavioural and psychological problems of those suffering from dementia are often the most difficult test for those looking after them. As well as wearing a person down, constant abnormal behaviour taking the form of accusations, violence, or even minor aggression can be very hurtful and demoralizing. If a carer’s sleep is constantly disturbed, it won’t be long before a social crisis is precipitated. But before embarking upon individual behavioural problems, there are some general points that are worth bearing in mind and which may be relevant to many of the situations in which carers may find themselves.

We all need a routine of some sort. Some people have very regimented existences while others have greater flexibility in their day to day lives. It is very important to try to introduce a regular routine for people with dementia. This should include having a set place for objects and a set time for different activities. The dementia makes it very difficult for a person to learn new information and it can be very bewildering and frustrating to look for something that is missing, without the ability to think about where it might have been moved to. Similarly, knowing that certain activities such as mealtimes or visits to the shops generally occur at a certain time, not only makes them easier to remember as the memory wanes, but can also act as a focal point which a mildly demented person can look forward to. The routine must, however, be flexible and will probably need to change as the disease advances. Once it becomes apparent that various aspects of it are not working they should not be forced upon the sufferer, but should be altered or abandoned as seems most appropriate.

In general it is best to help people with Alzheimer’s disease or one of the other dementias to live as much in the real world as possible. This means regularly telling them about the environment in which they live, reminding them of the day or the month and, at least at the beginning, of the events that are going on in the world around them. However, as the disease advances, sufferers will be able to cope with this less and less and if they wish to do something unusual, there is no reason why they shouldn’t as long as it isn’t harmful and if it proves impossible to persuade them to do otherwise without a lot of trouble and upset. For instance, somebody I know with Alzheimer’s disease insists on wearing his bathing-trunks rather than underpants. There is no harm in this and it causes much distress to both him and his wife if she tries to insist that he wears underpants.

Many people with dementia over-react to a threatening situation. This catastrophic reaction should be avoided whenever possible as it eventually does more harm than good. It may be possible to win the battle over something on one occasion but life will probably be made very much more difficult afterwards. If possible, anticipate such reactions and try to find ways around them.

While it is important to maintain the independence of individuals for as long as possible, don’t try to make them undertake an activity such as doing up small buttons that you know they will not be able to complete. It is important to avoid failure as much as possible. If the activity can be managed, even though it may take two or three times as long as it would if you were to help, whenever possible it is better not to intervene but to be patient. As time goes on, however, and help is needed, rather than taking over completely, start by providing assistance. Usually over a period of years the dementia will take its toll on the ability to carry out simple everyday activities and there will be a shift from independence or partial independence to more or less complete dependence. This should take place gradually and in many ways is a reverse of the situation that parents find themselves in with children. Although the situation progresses in the opposite direction, the principles are very similar.

Communication is extremely important. It is easy to attribute failure to understand what is said to the confusion that results from the dementia. In many instances, however, just as is the case with other old people, a person with dementia may have difficulty in seeing or hearing. It can be very awkward to assess the sight and hearing of a person who has an illness that causes dementia as they may be disinclined to cooperate with the assessment. Nevertheless there are all sorts of clues that can be picked up by the carer. If there is any doubt, especially with hearing, it is important to ask the doctor to examine the ears and to clear out any wax. If there is still doubt, a trial with a hearing-aid is often helpful in deciding whether deafness is a problem.

Communication is not confined to language, and non-verbal communication is particularly important because, as has been mentioned in earlier chapters, many of the illnesses that cause dementia interfere with a person’s ability to understand and use language. Without realizing it, we all receive and transmit signals by the expressions on our faces, our gestures, and the position of our body, and the ability to respond to this type of communication is retained in many people with dementia even into the more severe stages in some cases. Smile, be positive and friendly, and don’t shout unless it is necessary. You will probably have noticed how a smile usually elicits a smile in return. This often reduces tension and can help with relaxation, particularly if a difficult situation is arising. Similarly you can use the body language of the sufferer to help you understand what is going on in his or her mind. Facial expressions, actions of the hands, and posture are very important. Although there are some aspects of body language that are similar in most people, individual patterns vary greatly and if you observe carefully you can soon learn to pick up the signs.

As well as speaking clearly, and in some cases slowly, and using relatively simple language, it is often a good idea to use props when trying to communicate with someone who is beginning to have difficulty with language. Photographs of members of the family or friends and pointing to the individual when discussing them can be helpful, as can the use of large calendars or clocks for the purpose of time-orientation. Disorientation in space is often another problem and some families that I know have painted the doors in their house in different colours to help distinguish between the kitchen and the dining room. You can take this a step further by putting a picture on the door, of a WC or bed as appropriate.

For the highest standards of care, the important points are to establish a routine, but to treat this flexibly as the situation will change; to make the most of communication, both verbal and non-verbal; to avoid catastrophic over-reactions; to avoid situations that cause a sense of failure; and to be protective without being over-protective. In other words you will need to be a paragon of all the virtues, which is of course impossible. It is important to accept this and to realize that you may sometimes appear to make mistakes, but as long as you are trying to do the best you can, that is all anyone can really expect of you.

*61\138\2*

Another reason for studying in detail the way in which the disease affects people is that it may be possible to develop better ways, both of differentiating Alzheimer’s disease from other illnesses, particularly MID, and also of recognizing when MID and Alzheimer’s disease co-exist. Although it is possible to differentiate these conditions with quite a high degree of accuracy, a confident diagnosis is still much more difficult than with many other problems.

Although Alzheimer’s disease is usually regarded as a single condition for the purposes of diagnosis, there is sufficient similarity of symptoms and signs with other conditions to confuse even the most experienced doctor on occasions. In the present state of knowledge, accuracy in making this diagnosis is of the order of 80 per cent. This may well surprise many readers as it means the diagnosis may be wrong for as many as one person in five. This is of particular importance for the trial of new treatments; if it is known that there is a one in five chance of incorrectly including people without Alzheimer’s disease in the study, it means that the treatment must be expected not to work in at least one fifth of cases. This has to be taken into consideration when assessing the results of clinical trials of new medicines.

*39\138\2*

This condition was described in 1892, before Alzheimer’s disease, but appears to occur much less frequently. Like Alzheimer’s disease it is a chronic degenerative condition of the brain. In the majority of cases it appears as if there is an inherited tendency and it strikes particularly in late middle age. It is said to affect women a little more frequently than men.

The most striking feature of this condition is the way in which the degeneration and wasting of the brain tissue appears to be confined to two lobes in particular, the frontal and temporal lobes. Sometimes the left hemisphere appears to be more affected than the right and the disease also seems to start at the front end of these lobes. When one examines the brain under the microscope there is a considerable degree of nerve cell loss and also an increase in the numbers of the non-nerve cell population, the glia, in the outer layers of the brain — the cortex. Some of the neurones are distorted in a particular fashion; the nerve cell bodies appear to be distended by some abnormal material that has collected within the cell.

The symptoms that a patient shows reflect the site at which the damage occurs. Abnormalities of the frontal lobe often result in deterioration in personality and disorders of mood. These changes make it quite clear that something is amiss, especially as they usually occur in a younger person. Unlike some of the other illnesses that cause dementia, in the early stages of the disease memory function and the ability to use language are less affected in proportion to the personality and mood changes. In many instances therefore it is possible to suspect the diagnosis after questioning a relative or close friend and examining the person concerned. A brain scan may then show that the atrophy has particularly affected the frontal and temporal lobes and this makes the diagnosis almost certain. In most of the other dementias memory function is affected first and is usually one of the aspects of mental function that is affected most.

The condition is not always easy to spot, however, and can sometimes mimic the commoner illnesses such as Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s sufferers may be caught shoplifting because they have absentmindedly put an article in their bag, forgetting that they ought to pay for it. Rather than having forgotten, Pick’s sufferers may well have felt that they should not be expected to pay or perhaps just wanted to see if they could get away with not doing so.

As the disease progresses it becomes more and more difficult to distinguish from other conditions like Alzheimer’s. Often the diagnosis is only made when the brain is examined after the person has died. Most people with Pick’s disease live for five or six years after the diagnosis has been made, sometimes a little longer.

*17\138\2*